The scientific study of mind and behavior. It utilizes systematic research methods to investigate how biological, social, and psychological factors interact to shape human actions and mental processes.
The sum of organized, progressive, cumulative, and systematic knowledge. It involves active research to determine causal relationships, identifying which causes lead to which effects and how different phenomena are related.
A sub-field of philosophy, also known as the philosophy of science, that focuses on thinking about the basic principles, methods, and limits of a scientific field. It critically analyzes the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge.
The relation established between the agent (the subject, which is the human) and the theme (the object, which is the rest of the world). It requires a direct contact or connection between the subject and the object to exist.
A philosophical approach that influences psychology by emphasizing human freedom, authenticity, and the search for meaning. It views humans as active, feeling, and experiencing beings rather than just thinking creatures.
A psychological approach that was highly popular in the 1950s, especially in the USA, which aimed to establish psychology as a natural science. It focuses strictly on studying observable and measurable behaviors rather than internal mental states.
A modern, popular approach in psychology that combines neuroscience, genetics, and computer science to study the mind and mental processes. It enables researchers to directly observe the interaction between biological, social, and psychological properties.
A family model prevalent in collectivistic, rural, or agrarian contexts where family integrity and closely-knit relations are highly valued. In this model, family members are economically dependent on one another.
A family model common in individualistic, urbanized, or affluent contexts that prioritizes individual life and personal autonomy. In this model, family members are economically independent of one another.
A family model found in urbanized, affluent parts of non-individualistic countries like Turkey. It combines individual autonomy with emotional relatedness, meaning family members are economically independent but emotionally connected.
The sum of systematic, collective, progressive, and organized knowledge obtained through scientific methods to analyze the relations that exist in nature. For example, psychology uses scientific methods to systematically study human behavior and mental processes.
A thinking activity that examines the basic principles, assumptions, and foundations of a science or scientific field. It helps define the boundaries of scientific knowledge and evaluates the ethical standards of research.
A body of related principles that functions to explain, predict, and control a specific phenomenon. In psychology, the cognitive theory steps in to explain unobservable mental processes like memory and imagination that behaviorist theory cannot fully account for.
A general, absolute scientific rule formulated in physical sciences that holds true under all possible circumstances. An example is the law of gravity formulated in physics, which differs from the evolving theories of social sciences.
A descriptive act that involves the symbolic or digital representation of variables, characteristics, and objects through systematic observation. For example, recording a student's score of 40 on a psychological test is a measurement.
An interpretive process of concluding a judgment, verdict, or comment by comparing measured data with a set of reference criteria. For example, labeling a student as 'unsuccessful' because their test score of 40 is below the passing criterion of 50.
A measurement type where the target variable is measured directly without influence from other variables, using tools of the same kind. It is highly common in physical sciences, such as measuring height or weight.
A measurement technique used for variables that cannot be observed directly, by employing proxy tools designed to measure that specific construct. Social sciences use indirect measurement, such as using standardized tests to measure intelligence.
Scientific studies that aim to either develop, refine, or test a theory to expand the boundaries of knowledge. For example, psychological research determining that positive reinforcement influences human behavior is fundamental research.
Research studies that produce practical suggestions, interventions, or solutions for real-world problems based on the findings of fundamental research. An example is educational scholars designing classroom reward systems to change student behavior.
The entire group of individuals or cases that share specific characteristics, to whom the researcher intends to generalize the findings of a study. An example is all the mine workers currently employed in Turkey.
A smaller, representative subgroup of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study, allowing generalizations to be made about the population. For example, studying 200 selected miners to represent all miners in Turkey.
The degree to which a measurement instrument is consistent, free from random errors, and produces similar results upon repeated measurements under identical conditions.
The degree to which a measurement instrument actually measures what it claims to measure and is aligned with the research goals. For example, using a personality test to measure intelligence results in low validity.
The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect, representing the hypothesized cause. In a study on smoking and cancer, smoking is the independent variable.
The outcome variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable, representing the hypothesized effect. In a study on smoking and cancer, cancer is the dependent variable.
The tendency of research participants to alter their natural behavior or act unnaturally when they are aware that they are being observed by a researcher.
An ethical violation involving the act of using other researchers' ideas, data, or publications without giving proper credit or citation, or deliberately manipulating their work for personal gain.
Organizmayı belirli bir amaca doğru harekete geçiren, davranışa enerji veren ve onu yönlendiren istek, ihtiyaç ve dürtülerin genel adıdır.
Açlık, susuzluk ve cinsellik gibi biyolojik ihtiyaçlardan kaynaklanan ve organizmayı harekete geçiren fizyolojik kökenli güdülerdir.
Organizmanın yaşamını sürdürebilmesi veya dengesini koruyabilmesi için gerekli olan maddelerin veya sosyal desteklerin eksikliği durumudur.
Vücudun iç ortamını dengeli, kararlı ve sabit bir durumda tutma eğilimidir; tıpkı bir termostat gibi çalışır.
Bireyin biyolojik bir ihtiyacı olmasa bile onu cezbederek eyleme geçiren dışsal, biyolojik olmayan unsurlardır; fırından yeni çıkmış kek kokusu gibi.
Bir türün tüm üyelerinde öğrenilmemiş, doğuştan gelen ve sabit bir örüntü gösteren karmaşık davranış kalıplarıdır; örümceklerin ağ örmesi gibi.
Biyolojik ihtiyaçlardan doğan, öğrenilmemiş ve tüm insanlarda ortak olan açlık, susuzluk gibi temel dürtülerdir.
Bireylerin toplum içinde yaşayarak, öğrenme yoluyla edindikleri başarı, güç ve ilişki kurma gibi sosyal içerikli güdülerdir.
Bir görevde en iyisini yapma, zorlukların üstesinden gelme ve yüksek standartlara ulaşarak bundan kişisel doyum sağlama isteğidir.
Diğer insanlarla yakın ilişkiler kurma, bir gruba ait olma, kabul görme ve sosyal uyum içinde yaşama arzusudur.
Çevredeki insanları, olayları veya durumları kontrol etme, yönlendirme ve onlar üzerinde etki sahibi olma isteğidir.
Maslow'un hiyerarşisinde en üst basamakta yer alan, bireyin sahip olduğu tüm potansiyeli ve yetenekleri sonuna kadar kullanma ihtiyacıdır.
Duyu organlarındaki reseptörlerin, dış dünyadan aldıkları fiziksel enerjiyi sinir sisteminin işleyebileceği elektrik sinyallerine dönüştürmesidir.
Bir uyarıcının duyu organları tarafından fark edilebildiği en düşük enerji veya yoğunluk seviyesidir.
İki uyarıcı arasındaki farkın duyu organları tarafından ayırt edilebildiği en küçük yoğunluk değişimidir.
Retinada optik sinirin gözden ayrıldığı, üzerinde hiç ışığa duyarlı fotoreseptör bulunmayan ve görmenin gerçekleşmediği alandır.
Performans ile uyarılma/kaygı düzeyi arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklar; en yüksek başarıya orta (optimal) düzeydeki kaygı ile ulaşıldığını savunur.
Duyguların, vücudun çevresel olaylara verdiği fizyolojik tepkilerin beyin tarafından algılanması sonucu oluştuğunu savunan teoridir.
Duygusal yaşantı ile vücuttaki fizyolojik tepkilerin talamusun uyarılmasıyla aynı anda ve eş zamanlı olarak ortaya çıktığını savunan teoridir.
Duyguların oluşumunda ve farklılaşmasında bireyin zihinsel süreçlerinin, beklentilerinin ve çevresel ipuçlarını yorumlama biçiminin belirleyici olduğunu savunan teoridir.
Bireyin fizyolojik etkisi olmayan sahte bir ilacı gerçek sanarak alması sonucu, bilişsel beklentilerine bağlı olarak psikolojik veya fiziksel rahatlama yaşamasıdır.
Duygu ve düşüncelerin kelimeler kullanılmadan jestler, mimikler, göz teması, vücut dili ve kişisel mesafe aracılığıyla aktarılması sürecidir.
A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization stating that elements that are within the same region of space appear to be grouped together. For example, shapes enclosed within a shared boundary or background are perceived as a single group.
A Gestalt principle stating that a connected region of visual properties, such as lightness, color, texture, or motion, is perceived as a single unit. This explains why shapes connected by a line are grouped together.
A Gestalt principle stating that visual events occurring at the same time are perceived as belonging together. For example, if several distinct shapes blink or move simultaneously, they are grouped by the brain.
A Gestalt law stating that our brains fill in missing gaps in a visual stimulus in order to create a complete and meaningful image. This allows us to perceive a whole shape even if parts of its border are missing.
A theory of pitch perception suggesting that different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies. This means that sounds with different pitches generate neural messages in different sets of neurons.
A theory of pitch perception stating that the activity level of a sensory neuron codes the frequency of a sound wave. According to this theory, a given hair cell fires action potentials at a rate that directly matches the frequency of the sound wave.
The clinical term for the loss of the ability to smell. People who suffer from this condition also lose their ability to taste and enjoy many foods due to the close connection between olfaction and flavor.
A category of taste that is perceived when we taste certain salts, such as monosodium glutamate. It is commonly associated with savory flavors found in ready-made soups and packaged foods.
Structures on the surface of the tongue that cause ridges and valleys. Except for the filiform papillae, all types of papillae contain taste buds which house the taste receptor cells.
A theory proposed by Melzack and Wall stating that pain signals travel from the body to the brain through a neurological gate in the spinal cord. This gate can be opened or closed by cognitive factors or competing sensory inputs.
The temporary reduction in sensitivity and response to a continuing, unchanging smell. This explains why people quickly stop noticing the scent of their own home or perfume.
A behavioral learning process in which a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response that is identical or highly similar to the natural, unconditioned response.
A stimulus that consistently and automatically triggers a natural, unlearned response from an organism without any prior conditioning, such as meat triggering salivation in a dog.
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggers a learned, conditioned response on its own.
The tendency of an organism to exhibit a learned, conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus, such as Little Albert fearing a white rabbit due to his conditioned fear of a white rat.
The learned ability of an organism to distinguish between the specific conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, responding only to the original conditioned stimulus.
The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when reinforcement is withheld (in operant conditioning).
A learning process developed by B.F. Skinner in which the probability of a voluntary behavior occurring is modified, increased, or decreased by the consequences (reinforcement or punishment) that follow it.
An operant conditioning procedure where a pleasant or desirable stimulus is presented immediately after a behavior, thereby increasing the frequency and likelihood of that behavior recurring.
An operant conditioning procedure where an unpleasant or aversive stimulus is removed or avoided immediately after a behavior, which increases the future frequency of that desired behavior.
An operant conditioning procedure where an unpleasant or aversive stimulus is presented immediately following an undesired behavior, with the goal of decreasing the frequency of that behavior.
An operant conditioning procedure where a pleasant or desired stimulus is removed or withheld immediately following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in the frequency of that behavior.
An operant conditioning technique that involves reinforcing successive, closer approximations of a desired target behavior until the complete, complex target behavior is successfully exhibited.
A type of cognitive learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or immediate change in behavior, remaining unexpressed until a suitable motivation or reward is introduced to demonstrate it.
An internal, mental representation of the layout of one's physical environment, which Tolman demonstrated is constructed by organisms during exploration without the need for immediate reinforcement.
A cognitive problem-solving process identified by Wolfgang Köhler where an organism suddenly discovers the solution to a problem by understanding the relationships between the parts of the whole, often accompanied by an 'Ah-ha' feeling.
A central concept in Albert Bandura's social learning theory where an individual acquires new behaviors, skills, or information by watching, retaining, and imitating the actions of a role model.
Lev Vygotsky's concept describing the distance between what a learner can accomplish independently and what they can achieve with the guidance, support, and collaboration of a more knowledgeable peer or adult.
A physical development pattern where growth and motor control progress sequentially from the top of the body (the head) downward to the lower parts of the body (shoulders, torso, and legs).
A physical development pattern where growth and motor control progress sequentially from the center or midline of the body outward toward the extremities, such as gaining control of the arms before the fingers.
An automatic, survival-based newborn reflex that occurs in response to a sudden noise or movement, causing the infant to arch its back, throw back its head, and fling out its arms and legs before pulling them back in.
A fine motor skill milestone where an infant develops the ability to pick up and manipulate small objects by coordinating the thumb and forefinger.
Jean Piaget's term for the cognitive process of taking in new environmental information and fitting it into already existing mental schemes without changing the structure of those schemes.
Jean Piaget's term for the cognitive process of modifying existing mental schemes or creating entirely new ones to adapt to and make sense of new, conflicting environmental information.
A cognitive limitation characteristic of Piaget's preoperational stage where a child is unable to distinguish or differentiate between their own physical or mental perspective and the perspective of others.
A cognitive feature of early childhood where a child attributes lifelike qualities, intentions, feelings, and actions to inanimate, non-living objects, such as believing a doll is hungry.
A formal operational cognitive process where adolescents propose a hypothesis, think about its logical implications, and systematically plan and test steps to solve a problem. This is a key feature of Piaget's final stage of cognitive development.
A heightened state of self-consciousness in adolescents, characterized by the belief that others are highly attentive to their behavior and appearance. According to David Elkind, it consists of two components: the imaginary audience and the personal fable.
A cognitive distortion where an adolescent falsely believes that everyone else is as interested in them and their actions as they are in themselves. An example is a teenager refusing to go to school because of a minor blemish, assuming everyone will stare at it.
An aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an intense feeling of personal uniqueness and invulnerability. Adolescents experiencing this believe that their feelings are completely unique and that no one else, especially parents, can understand them.
Erik Erikson's term for the developmental gap or pause between the security of childhood and the autonomy of adulthood. It allows adolescents the freedom to explore different roles and identities without the immediate pressure of adult responsibilities.
The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring during adolescence. In this stage, individuals struggle to find their path and establish a coherent sense of self, and failure to resolve this conflict leads to identity confusion.
One of James Marcia's four identity statuses where adolescents have not yet experienced an identity crisis or made any commitments, and they show little to no interest in exploring such developmental issues.
An identity status in which adolescents have made firm commitments to a particular identity or set of beliefs without ever experiencing a crisis or exploring alternative options, often adopting the expectations of their parents.
An identity status where adolescents are currently experiencing an active identity crisis and exploring various options, but their commitments are either weak, vague, or entirely absent.
The identity status achieved by adolescents who have successfully navigated through an identity crisis, explored various alternatives, and made clear, self-chosen personal and vocational commitments.
A proposed post-Piagetian cognitive stage of adulthood characterized by thinking that is reflective, relativistic, contextual, provisional, realistic, and open to the influence of emotions. This stage allows for the full expression of adult creativity.
The seventh stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, occurring during middle adulthood. Generativity involves the motivation to guide and leave a legacy for the next generation, while stagnation is the feeling of emptiness and having contributed nothing.
The eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, occurring in late adulthood. It involves a retrospective life-review where individuals either feel a sense of satisfaction and wholeness (integrity) or deep regret and sorrow (despair).
The average number of years that individuals born in a particular generation or time period are expected to live, which is highly influenced by environmental factors, healthcare, and lifestyle.
The absolute maximum number of years that a member of the human species can biologically live, which has remained relatively constant despite dramatic increases in average life expectancy.
A group of psychologists who accepted the basic dynamic premises of Freud's psychoanalytic theory but modified it to focus more on the conscious mind, social factors, and non-sexual motives.
Karen Horney's concept describing a child's feeling of being isolated, insecure, and helpless in a potentially hostile world, which acts as a foundational force in personality development.
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited segment of the unconscious mind that contains archetypes and memories common to all human beings, expressed through universal myths and symbols.
Universal, inherited cognitive images and thought patterns shared across all cultures, such as the persona, shadow, anima/animus, and the self, as proposed by Carl Jung.
Alfred Adler's term for the pervasive feelings of weakness and inadequacy that individuals are born with, which drives them to consciously strive for superiority and self-improvement.
Harry Stack Sullivan's term for the mental representations that individuals build of themselves and others, categorized into the good-me, the bad-me, and the not-me.
Erich Fromm's concept describing an unhealthy coping mechanism where an individual escapes the anxiety of freedom by unconditionally conforming to societal expectations and norms.
Erik Erikson's eight-stage model of development spanning the entire lifespan, where each stage is characterized by a specific psychosocial conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development.
A term from B. F. Skinner's behavioral theory referring to voluntary, learned behaviors that operate on the environment to produce reinforcing or punishing consequences.
Albert Bandura's concept stating that an individual's behavior, internal cognitive/personality factors, and environmental events continuously interact and influence one another in a bidirectional manner.
George Kelly's term for the subjective cognitive hypotheses or templates that individuals create to interpret, explain, and predict events in their environment.
The humanistic concept, emphasized by Abraham Maslow, representing the innate human drive and ongoing process of realizing one's full potential and unique capabilities.
Carl Rogers's concept of providing complete, non-judgmental love and acceptance to a person, separating their inherent worth from their specific behaviors.
Carl Rogers's term for a self-actualizing person's ability to trust their own inner experiences, feelings, and judgments to guide their behavior appropriately.
The assumption, first proposed by Sir Francis Galton, that the most important individual differences and personality traits are encoded as descriptive words within natural languages.
A widely accepted trait theory of personality consisting of five broad, dimensional traits: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Openness to Experience.
Bireyin sosyal normlardan sapan, istatistiksel olarak nadir görülen, kendisinde yoğun stres ve huzursuzluk yaratan ve günlük yaşam işlevselliğini ciddi şekilde bozan tutum ve eylemler bütünüdür.
Sigmund Freud'un kişilik kuramında, haz ilkesine göre çalışan, mantık dışı, ahlak dışı ve anında doyum bekleyen bilinçdışı cinsellik ve saldırganlık dürtülerinin kaynağıdır.
Kişiliğin gerçeklik ilkesine göre çalışan rasyonel ve mantıklı parçasıdır; id'in arzularını sosyal olarak kabul edilebilir yollarla doyurmaya çalışırken süperegonun denetimini de dengeler.
Kişiliğin ahlaki, etik ve toplumsal değerleri temsil eden vicdan mekanizmasıdır; bireyin toplum kurallarına ve ideal ahlak prensiplerine uygun davranmasını zorunlu kılar.
Bireyin dış dünyadan gelen bilgileri organize etme, sınıflandırma ve şemalaştırma biçimidir; örneğin bir örümceği normal bir canlı veya dehşet verici bir korku nesnesi olarak algılama tarzıdır.
Bireyin günlük yaşam olayları, sağlık, para veya iş hakkında hiçbir somut neden yokken sürekli, aşırı ve kontrol edilemez bir felaket beklentisi ve endişe içinde olması durumudur.
Aniden ortaya çıkan, kalp çarpıntısı, nefes darlığı, göğüste sıkışma, baş dönmesi ve ölüm korkusu gibi yoğun fiziksel ve zihinsel belirtilerle karakterize edilen dehşet nöbetidir.
Bireyin acil bir durumda kolayca kaçamayacağı veya yardım alamayacağı açık alanlarda, kalabalık alışveriş merkezlerinde, tünellerde veya asansörlerde bulunmaktan duyduğu yoğun korkudur.
Bireyin iradesi dışında zihnine gelen, yoğun kaygı ve sıkıntı yaratan, kontrol edilemeyen, tekrarlayıcı ve rahatsız edici düşünce, dürtü veya imgelerdir.
Bireyin obsesyonların yarattığı yoğun kaygıyı geçici olarak azaltmak veya engellemek amacıyla yineleyici bir şekilde gerçekleştirmek zorunda hissettiği ritüelistik davranışlardır.
Bireyin vücut işlevlerine aşırı odaklanarak, tıbbi muayenelerde hiçbir fiziksel bulguya rastlanmamasına rağmen ciddi ve ölümcül bir hastalığa yakalandığına dair sarsılmaz bir inanç geliştirmesidir.
Bilinçdışındaki ağır psikolojik çatışmaların bedene aktarılarak, hiçbir fizyolojik veya nörolojik neden olmaksızın felç, körlük veya sağırlık gibi işlev kayıplarına yol açması durumudur.
Bireyin ani ve travmatik bir olay sonrasında tüm geçmiş kimlik bilgilerini unutarak evinden uzak bir yere plansız seyahat etmesi ve orada yeni bir kimlik benimsemesidir.
Dışarıda somut bir uyarıcı olmamasına rağmen, beş duyu organıyla bir şeyi varmış gibi algılama durumudur; olmayan sesleri duymak veya hayaller görmek buna örnektir.
Gerçeklikle bağdaşmayan, aksini gösteren tüm kanıtlara rağmen birey tarafından sarsılmaz bir şekilde inanılan mantık dışı inançlardır; takip edildiğini düşünmek buna örnektir.
Bireyin duygu durumunda aşırı taşkınlık, coşku ve hareketliliğin görüldüğü manik dönemler ile aşırı çökkünlük ve mutsuzluğun yaşandığı depresif dönemlerin birbirini izlediği ruhsal bozukluktur.
Toplumsal kuralları, yasaları ve başkalarının haklarını sürekli olarak hiçe sayma, yalan söyleme, manipülasyon yapma ve pişmanlık duymama ile karakterize edilen kişilik yapısıdır.
Bireyin kendi önemini aşırı abartması, sınırsız başarı ve güç fantezileri kurması, sürekli hayranlık beklemesi ve empati yeteneğinden tamamen yoksun olması durumudur.